For decades, fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) have been critical inputs for aquaculture, enabling the farming of carnivorous species like salmon, shrimp, and trout, which have become supermarket staples worldwide. This multi-billion-dollar industry relies on small-pelagic fish—such as anchovies, sardines, and menhaden—processed into nutrient-rich feed. However, the locations and operations of the factories driving this trade have long been opaque. A groundbreaking study led by the University of British Columbia (UBC) has now mapped this hidden network, creating the first open-access, geo-referenced database of FMFO facilities across the globe.

The research identifies 506 factories spread across 63 countries, operated by over 400 companies. Peru, Mauritania, and Chile host the highest concentrations of these facilities, with significant clusters also in Vietnam, China, Denmark, Norway, and the United States. This new transparency sheds light on the environmental, social, and economic consequences of FMFO production, offering a foundation for reform in the aquaculture sector.

Global footprint of fishmeal

The UBC study reveals that approximately 40% of global FMFO production still depends on whole, wild-caught fish rather than byproducts like trimmings from seafood processing. These small-pelagic species are vital to marine ecosystems, serving as prey for larger fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. They are also a critical protein source for millions of people in low-income coastal communities, particularly in regions like West Africa and Southeast Asia.

“Production of fishmeal is a major issue in aquaculture. Understanding where FMFO production occurs is essential for addressing its environmental, social, and economic impacts,” said Lauren Shea, the study’s lead author and a former master’s student at UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries. The research team compiled the database using a combination of satellite imagery, government records, company websites, academic literature, and third-party certification data to pinpoint factory locations and verify their raw material sources.

Peru dominates the industry with 125 factories, primarily processing anchoveta from the nutrient-rich Humboldt Current. Mauritania follows with 42 plants, many backed by foreign investment, which have been linked by local NGOs to rising food prices and conflicts over resource access. In contrast, countries like Norway and Denmark operate fewer but technologically advanced facilities, benefiting from stringent environmental regulations and efficient rendering processes. These variations highlight the diverse challenges in regulating the global FMFO trade.

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Challenges in transparency

Despite the study’s advancements, gaps in data persist. Many FMFO facilities in China, for instance, are poorly documented due to limited public disclosure, language barriers, and minimal online presence. Similarly, plants in West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia operate in regions with unreliable or undisclosed fishery statistics, complicating efforts to assess their impact. “With more transparent data, governments and organizations can better regulate FMFO sourcing, track environmental impacts, and support alternatives—like plant-based feeds or novel proteins—that reduce pressure on wild fish stocks,” Shea noted.

The study also underscores the ecological toll of overexploiting small-pelagic fish. Industrial fishing for FMFO can disrupt marine food webs, threatening predator species and coastal livelihoods. In Mauritania, for example, the expansion of FMFO factories has raised concerns about overfishing, which deprives local communities of affordable fish for direct consumption. The researchers advocate for routine database updates, independent audits of raw material sources, and detailed analyses of each facility’s social and environmental footprint to address these issues.

Pathways toward responsible fish feed

As aquaculture now supplies over half of the world’s seafood, reforming FMFO supply chains is critical to sustainable food systems. One promising approach is increasing the use of seafood processing waste—such as heads, bones, and trimmings—to produce fishmeal and oil, thereby reducing demand for whole wild fish. Emerging alternatives, like algae-based feeds, microbial proteins, and insect meal, also offer viable substitutes that could lessen the industry’s ecological footprint. Plant-based concentrates, where nutritionally feasible, provide another avenue for innovation.

However, technical solutions alone are insufficient. “Science can only go so far,” said Professor Rashid Sumaila, the study’s senior author. “We need political will, corporate accountability, and community engagement to drive real change. If aquaculture is going to be part of a sustainable food future, we need better data, smarter policies, and ethical sourcing of feed ingredients.” Governance challenges, including weak enforcement of catch quotas and labor rights violations in some regions, must be addressed to ensure equitable and sustainable outcomes.

Initiatives like the Fisheries Transparency Initiative (FiTI) offer a model for progress. Mauritania, a FiTI member, has published a public list of its FMFO factories, setting an example for other nations. Scaling such efforts globally could enhance oversight and promote responsible sourcing practices.

The stakes for oceans and people

Small-pelagic fish, often called “the gold of the sea” for their high omega-3 content and abundance, are a cornerstone of both marine ecosystems and human diets. When harvested sustainably, they support coastal economies, provide affordable nutrition, and enable aquaculture growth without destabilizing ecosystems. However, industrial overfishing can trigger cascading effects, harming predator species, seabirds, and communities dependent on these fish for food security.

The UBC study equips policymakers, NGOs, and seafood buyers with a tool to assess risks in FMFO supply chains. By mapping factory locations and their reliance on wild fish, it highlights the need for science-based catch limits, protection of traditional fishing rights, and investment in circular-economy feed solutions. For instance, redirecting fish processing waste into FMFO production could reduce pressure on wild stocks while creating economic opportunities in coastal regions.

Future directions for sustainability

Looking ahead, the researchers call for integrating additional data into the FMFO database, including factory-level emissions, water usage, and labor conditions, to provide a comprehensive sustainability profile. Comparing the economic value of FMFO production against the potential benefits of using small-pelagic fish for direct human consumption could also guide more equitable resource allocation. Such analyses could reveal whether diverting these fish to local markets might better support food security and livelihoods in vulnerable regions.

The global FMFO map marks a significant step toward transparency, but its impact depends on how stakeholders use it. Governments could leverage the data to enforce stricter regulations, while companies might explore alternative feeds to reduce their environmental footprint. Advocacy groups can use the map to hold corporations accountable, and consumers can make informed choices about the seafood they purchase.

Over the next decade, the evolution of these 506 factories—whether they adopt sustainable practices or expand unsustainably—will signal whether aquaculture can balance growth with ocean stewardship and social equity. For now, the UBC study offers a critical reference point, illuminating a once-hidden industry and paving the way for a more responsible future.

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